Monday, October 31, 2016

Chapter 6 Study Guide For Apollo Team Students

Chapter 6 Geography Study Guide for Apollo

Chapter 6 Study Guide for Apollo Students
For use with textbook pages 133–151
Population Patterns
This section focuses on the population patterns of the people of the United States and Canada.
Chapter 6, Section 1
Terms to Know
immigration -The movement of people into one country from another (page 133)
Native Americans-Descendants of the first immigrants to North America who probably came from Asia (page 134)
Sunbelt - The American South and Southwest, named because of its mild climate (page 135)
urbanization -The concentration of population in cities (page 135)
metropolitan area - A large urban center (page 135)
suburb - An outlying community located near a city (page 135)
megalopolis - A chain of closely linked metropolitan areas (page 136)
mobility - The ability to move from place to place (page 137)
Introduction (page 133) The United States and Canada have been shaped by immigration. This is the movement of people into one country from another.
1.         What has shaped the United States and Canada?
The People (page 133) All the people in the United States and Canada are immigrants or descendants of immigrants. Some came to the region recently. Others have ancestors who came many, many years ago. North America’s first immigrants probably came from Asia thousands of years ago. Their descendants are known as Native Americans. Other immigrants have come from all parts of the world. This makes the populations of the United States and Canada among the most diverse in the world.
There are many reasons that immigrants have come to the United States and Canada. Some reasons include:
A.  People wanted religious or political freedom.
B.  People were fleeing wars or natural disasters.
C.  People wanted greater economic opportunities.
D.  People sought the rich natural resources of the region.
2.         Why are the populations of the United States and Canada very diverse?
Population Density and Distribution (page 134) Canada is slightly larger than the United States in land area. Canada has an average population density of 8 people per square mile. Rugged terrain and cold climate make human settlement difficult in many parts of Canada. About 90 percent of Canada’s population lives in a narrow strip of land along Canada’s border with the United States.
Population centers in Canada are located near the fertile land and industrial resources of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence lowlands. Other population centers include the farming and ranching areas of the Prairie Provinces and the Pacific coast of British Columbia.  The United States has an average population density of 75 people per square mile. The Northeast and the Great Lakes regions are the most densely populated areas. They are the historical centers of American commerce and industry. The fastest growing region is the South and Southwest United States, known as the Sunbelt because of its mild climate. This area has growing manufacturing, service, and tourism industries.
Some areas of the United States have difficult climate conditions and small populations. These areas include subarctic Alaska, the Great Basin, and dry areas of the Great Plains.
3.         In what areas do most people in Canada and the United States live? Why are these areas centers of population?
The Cities (page 135) Both the United States and Canada have experienced urbanization, the migration of population into cities. About 75 percent of Americans and 60 percent of Canadians live in metropolitan areas—large cities together with outlying communities called suburbs.
Many population centers of the United States and Canada lie in coastal areas. Along the northern Atlantic coast of the United States a chain of closely linked metropolitan areas form a megalopolis. Four of the cities that make up this megalopolis—Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore—are important world trade centers because of their coastal or near coastal location. Along the Pacific coast, a developing megalopolis includes the port cities of San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego in California. Vancouver is an important shipping center for western Canada.
Inland cities have developed near rivers, lakes, and other waterways. In Canada, ships use the St. Lawrence River, the Ottawa River, and the Great Lakes to reach Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa, and Toronto. A developing megalopolis links the U.S. Great Lakes cities of Chicago and Milwaukee. Minneapolis, St. Paul, St. Louis, Memphis, and New Orleans are important Mississippi River cities. Winnipeg and Edmonton are important river cities in Canada.
The United States and Canada have low birth rates. Most population growth comes from immigration. Mobility, or the ability to move from place to place, is important to the people of the United States and Canada. Many people in the region frequently relocate.
History and Government
In the last section, you read about the geography of the United States and Canada. This section focuses on the history and government of these two countries.
Chapter 6, Section 2
Terms to Know
republic - A government in which the people elect their own officials (page 142)
Underground Railroad - An informal network of safe houses that helped escaping enslaved people make their way to freedom (page 143)
dry farming - Cultivating the land so that it catches and holds rainwater (page 143)
Constitution - The plan of government of the United States (page 144)
amendment - A change in the Constitution (page 144)
Bill of Rights - First 10 amendments to the Constitution guaranteeing the basic rights of citizens (page 144)
cabinet - A group of special advisers to the president (page 144)
dominion - A partially self-governing country with close ties to Great Britain (page 144)
Parliament - The national legislature of Canada made up of the Senate and the House of Commons (page 145)
Introduction (page 140) Native Americans once lived throughout North America. Then Europeans colonized the region. Finally, the region developed into the United States and Canada.
1.         Who lived in North America before the Europeans came?
History (page 140) There are two theories about the first people to settle North America. One theory is that thousands of years ago, nomads crossed a land bridge from Asia to Alaska and settled North America. Another theory is that nomads from Central and South America may have settled North America at the same time as those people from Asia.
By the late 1500s, Europeans began to migrate to North America looking for farmland, valuable minerals, or trade. Others were searching for political and religious freedom. Three main European groups came to North America:
A.  The Spanish controlled Florida and a large area west of the Mississippi River.  They set up military posts, missions, farms, and large cattle ranches.
B.  The French came for the fur trade along rivers. Some settled permanently along the St. Lawrence River and the Mississippi River near the Gulf of Mexico.
C.  The English had colonies or land along the Atlantic coast and around the Hudson Bay.  The northern colonies made their living by shipbuilding, trade, and fishing.  The middle colonies had level land and fertile soil, so English settlers raised cash crops. In the southern colonies the mild climate, rich soil, and open land encouraged plantation farming.
In 1763 France gave up much of its land in North America to Great Britain. English settlers migrated to the west, pushing out Native Americans and almost destroying their cultures. The United States was created in 1776 after the 13 British colonies fought a war for independence. The Americans set up a republic, a government in which the people elect their own officials.
Some American colonists who were loyal to Great Britain moved north to other British colonies. In 1867, four of the colonies united to form the Dominion of Canada.
During the 1800s the United States and Canada expanded into western North America. Westward expansion caused Native Americans to lose land and their way of life.
In the 1800s, industrialization changed the United States and Canada. The northeastern United States developed many textile factories, because its waterfalls and coal deposits could be used to generate power. United States and Canadian cities expanded along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River to transport factory goods. Cotton was needed for northern textile mills, so it became the major cash crop in the southern United States.
Enslaved Africans provided most of the labor on southern cotton plantations. Many people objected to the practice of slavery. The Underground Railroad, a network of safe houses, helped many escaped enslaved people make their way north to freedom. Disputes over slavery between Northern and Southern states led to the American Civil War. The Northern states defeated the Southern states, and the practice of slavery ended.
During the late 1800s, the United States and Canada encouraged settlement of the Great Plains. Settlers on the dry lands of the Great Plains developed dry farming. This was a method of preparing the land so that it caught and held rainwater. Transcontinental railroads were completed in the United States and Canada during the late 1800s. The railroads transported goods and people from east to west.
During the early 1900s assembly lines allowed the mass production of goods. This cut the cost and time of making goods. The automobile made it easier for people to travel from place to place. Two world wars in the 1900s led to economic growth in the Untied States and Canada. After 1940 the two countries developed a close trade partnership. By the 1990s high- tech industries were important in both countries.
2.         How did technology and industrialization affect the United States and Canada?
Government (page 144) The United States and Canada are both democracies with federal systems. The national government shares power with state or provincial governments. The United States’ plan of government is called the Constitution.
Chapter 6, Section 2
Changes in the constitution are called amendments. The first 10 amendments, called the Bill of Rights, guarantee the basic rights of citizens. The United States government has three branches—the executive, legislative, and judicial. The President heads the executive branch. The heads of the executive departments make up the president’s cabinet—a group of special advisers. Congress is the legislative branch. The Supreme Court and lower federal courts make up the judicial branch.
Canada was created as a dominion, a partially self-governing country with close ties to Great Britain. Canada gained full independence in 1931. Canada’s government includes a governor-general, appointed by the British monarch who still serves as head of state. The head of Canada’s government is the prime minister. The national legislature is called Parliament. Canada’s highest court is the Supreme Court.
Cultures and Lifestyles
In the last section, you read about the history and government of the United States and Canada. This section focuses on the types of cultures and way of life of people in these two countries.
Chapter 6, Section 3
Terms to Know
bilingual - Having two languages (page 148) jazz A form of music that blends African
rhythms - with European harmonies (page 148)
socioeconomic - Based on level of income and education (page 150)
literacy rate - The percentage of people who can read and write (page 150)
patriotism - Loyalty to one’s country (page 151)
Introduction (page 146) The immigrant roots of the United States and Canada give them a respect for diversity.
1.         Why do the people of the United States and Canada respect diversity?
Cultural Characteristics (page 146) The United States and Canada share some cultural characteristics, but differ in others.
Freedom of religion has always been important in the United States and Canada. Many of the people who migrated to the region came in search of religious freedom. This right is guaranteed in both countries. Today most Americans and Canadians are Christians, but a variety of religions are practiced in both countries.
The major language in the United States is English. Canada has two official languages—English and French. Immigrants from Great Britain brought English to the United States and much of Canada. French is the official language of Quebec because most of the province’s population are descendants of French settlers.
Many people in the Southwestern United States speak Spanish. In New Mexico, communication with the government can be in Spanish or English, so the state is bilingual.
2.         Why are there many different religions practiced and languages spoken in the United States and Canada?
The Arts (page 148)
The arts of the United States and Canada reflect the culture and traditions
of Native Americans, Europeans settlers, enslaved Africans, and present- day North Americans. Native American music used drums, flutes, whistles, and voices in chant. Europeans brought folk and religious music to the region. African Americans developed jazz in the early 1900s by blending African rhythms with European harmonies. By the late 1900s, country music and rock and roll were popular.
By the early 1900s, painting and sculpture in the United States and Canada moved away from European themes to new ideas. A group of American artists known as the Ashcan School painted the realities of city life. Canadians called the Group of Seven painted landscapes of Canada’s far north. Architects in the United States and Canada developed new ideas such as the skyscraper and buildings that blend with their surroundings.
Early literature in the two countries had European historical and religious themes. Later writers wrote about life in North America. More recently, writers have focused on the region’s cultures and on the experiences of immigrants.
Today the United States and Canada strongly influence the rest of the world in the areas of popular entertainment. This includes popular fashions, movies, theater, and television programs.
3.         What themes are used in the arts of the Untied States and Canada?
Lifestyles (page 150) Most people in the United States and Canada enjoy a high standard of living. Their socioeconomic status, or level of income and education, is high. This allows them many choices and opportunities. Food is plentiful and inexpensive.
Most people in the United States and Canada can expect to live long lives. In Canada the government pays for all health care. In the United States, most people pay for their own health care through private health insurance programs. Some people who do not have health insurance are able to get help from federal and state governments. Still, many people cannot purchase insurance or cannot afford necessary care even with insurance.
Both the United States and Canada have public and private schools. The literacy rate, or the percentage of people who can read and write, is 97 percent in the United States and 96 percent in Canada.
People in the United States and Canada enjoy watching and participating in sports such as baseball, football, hockey, tennis, and golf. The landscape of North America is ideal for camping and hiking. Both the United States and Canada have large national parks.
Both countries celebrate holidays and occasions for public display of patriotism, or loyalty to one’s country.

Chapter 5 Study Guide For Apollo Team Students

Chapter 5 Study Guide for Apollo Team

Chapter 5 Study Guide for Apollo Team
The Physical Geography of the US and Canada
Landforms (page 115) Many different landforms are found in Canada and the United States.
A.  The Rocky Mountains link the United States and Canada.  These mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles from New Mexico to Alaska.  The Pacific Ranges and the Rocky Mountains formed as a result of collisions between the Pacific and North American tectonic plates millions of years ago. Mt. McKinley in Alaska is the highest point in North America.
B.  Dry basins and plateaus are found between the Pacific Ranges and the Rocky Mountains.  The Colorado Plateau has been eroded by the Colorado River to form the Grand Canyon.  The Great Basin includes Death Valley—the hottest and lowest place in the United States. Canada’s Nechako Plateau and Fraser Plateau are narrower than the plateau areas in the United States.
C.  The Great Plains are located east of the Rockies and extend 400 miles across the center of the region.  They slope downward to the Central Lowlands along the Mississippi River.
D.  The Eastern Mountains includes the Canadian Shield and the Appalachian Mountains.  The Canadian Shield is a giant core of rock that anchors North America.  The Shield makes up the eastern half of Canada and the northeastern United States.  The Appalachian Mountains are North America’s oldest mountains.  They extend 1,500 miles from Quebec to central Alabama.
E.  Coastal Lowlands lie east and south of the Appalachians.
F.  Islands are important to the region. Manhattan Island at the mouth of the Hudson River is a major world economic center. Hawaii formed by volcanic mountaintops in the Pacific Ocean. Canada’s main islands in the east include Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton Island. In the west is Vancouver Island.
A Fortune in Water (page 116) Abundant freshwater lakes and rivers help the United States and Canada to satisfy the water needs of cities and rural areas, provide power for homes and industries, and move resources across the continent.
In North America the high ridge of the Rockies is called the Continental Divide or Great Divide. A divide is a high point or ridge that determines the direction that rivers flow. East of the Continental Divide, the rivers flow toward the Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bay, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Gulf of Mexico. West of the Continental Divide the rivers flow toward the Pacific Ocean. Some rivers have their headwaters, or source, in the Rockies. Many tributaries, or brooks, rivers, and streams, flow into these rivers.
The Mississippi River is North America’s longest river at 2,350 miles. It stretches from Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. It is one of the world’s busiest commercial waterways. The St. Lawrence River is one of Canada’s most important rivers. It is in eastern Canada. Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa all lie along the St. Lawrence River.
In the eastern United States, a boundary called the fall line marks the place where the higher land of the Piedmont drops to the lower Atlantic Coastal Plain. Eastern rivers become rapids and waterfalls along the fall line. Many important U.S. cities—Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington D.C., are along the fall line. These cities have port facilities for ocean- going ships. In the Northeast and the South the waterpower of the falls is used for textile mills and factories. Niagara Falls, along the Canada-United States border, is a tourist area and a major source of hydroelectric power for both countries.
In Northern Canada, Glacial dams created Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake.  Glaciers also created the Great Lakes in the central section of the continent. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway is a series of canals, rivers, and other inland waterways linking the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. This link has been important to the economic development of North America.
Natural Resources (page 119) The geological processes that shaped the landscape of North America also gave the region a great variety of resources:
A.  Fuels include petroleum, natural gas, and coal.
B.  Mineral resources include gold, silver, copper, iron ore, nickel, and potash—a mineral salt used in fertilizer.
C.  Timber is an important resource for both countries. However, today forests cover less than 30 percent of the United States and 50 percent of Canada. Efforts to harvest the timber responsibly include planting new trees, protecting animals in forests, and preserving old-growth forests.
D.  Fishing is important to the region.  Some fisheries, or places for catching fish and other sea animals, have been overfished and are now regulated by governments.
Climate and Vegetation
In the last section, you read about the physical geography of the United States and Canada. This section focuses on the climate regions and natural vegetation in the region.
Terms to Know
timberline -The elevation above which trees cannot grow (page 123)
Chinook - A warm, dry wind that blows down the Rocky Mountains in late winter and early spring (page 124)
prairie - A naturally treeless expanse of grasses (page 124)
Super-cell - A violent spring and summer thunderstorm that causes a tornado (page 124)
hurricane -  An ocean storm hundreds of miles wide with winds of 74 miles per hour or more (page 125)
blizzard - A long, severe snowstorm (page 125)
Introduction (page 121) The climate regions and natural vegetation of the United States and Canada are diverse.
A Varied Region (page 121) Much of the United States and Canada have climates that match their latitudes. Most of Canada and Alaska are in high latitudes, so they experience long, cold winters and short, mild summers. Most of the continental United States and the southern one-third of Canada lie in more temperate latitudes where the climate regions vary with elevation. Hawaii has a predominantly tropical climate.
Northern Climates (page 122) There are two northern climate zones:
A.  The subarctic climate zone covers large parts of Canada and Alaska. The winters are very cold and the vegetation is mostly coniferous forest.
B.  The tundra climate zone is found in lands along the Arctic coastline.  This zone has very cold winters and cool summers. Most plants cannot live there. Greenland’s tundra vegetation is sedge, cotton grass, and lichens. Some small trees and scrubs can grow there. Few people live in this climate zone.
Western Climates (page 122) The climate and vegetation patterns in the western areas of the United States and Canada vary widely. This is because of the combined effects of latitude, elevation, ocean currents, and rainfall.
A.  A marine west coast climate zone is found along the Pacific coast from northern California to southern Alaska.  The mix of ocean currents and winds with the Pacific Ranges causes this climate.  The mountains force the wet ocean air upward where it cools and releases its moisture. This area receives more than 100 inches of rain each year. Coniferous trees, ferns, and mosses are common.
B.  A Mediterranean climate zone is found in southern California.
C.  A desert climate zone is found between the Pacific Ranges and the
Rocky Mountains.  The rain shadow effect keeps the plateaus and basins in the area hot and dry.  This climate supports cacti. During brief spring rains, hardy wildflowers bloom.
D.  A steppe climate zone is also found between the Pacific Ranges and the Rocky Mountains.  The steppe climate is usually in areas near deserts. Desert scrub, grasslands, or coniferous forests grow in this steppe climate, depending on latitude.
E.  A highland climate is found in the higher elevations of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Ranges. Coniferous forests cover the middle elevations of the western mountains. Beyond the timberline, the elevation above which trees cannot grow, only lichens and mosses grow in the constant cold. In the late winter and early spring, a warm, dry wind called the Chinook may blow down the eastern slopes of the Rockies.  This wind quickly melts and evaporates the snow at the base of the mountains.
Interior Climates (page 124) The Great Plains of the United States and Canada are far from large bodies of water which moderate climate. This area is a humid continental climate zone with bitterly cold winters and hot summers. Prairies, or naturally treeless expanses of grasses, cover the land. In the Great Plains and Eastern United States, super-cells, or violent spring and summer thunder- storms, create tornadoes. The Great Plains supply most of North America’s wheat harvest.
Eastern Climates (page 125) There are two eastern climate zones in the region.
A.  A humid subtropical climate zone with long, humid summers and mild winters is found in the southeastern part of the region. Deciduous forests grow there.  Wetlands and swamps in the area are home to a great variety of vegetation and wildlife. Hurricanes, or ocean storms hundreds of miles wide with extremely strong winds, are common during the late summer and early autumn.
B.  A humid continental climate zone extends from northeastern United States into southern Canada. Deciduous and mixed deciduous-evergreen forests grow in this climate zone. In winter, much of northern North America has blizzards. These snowstorms have winds over 35 miles per hour, temperatures below freezing, and visibility of less than 500 feet.
Tropical Climates (page 125) There are two tropical climate zones in the United States.
A.  A tropical savanna climate zone is found in the southern tip of Florida.

B.  A tropical rainforest zone is located in Puerto Rico and Hawaii.

Wednesday, October 5, 2016

Chapter 4 Study Guide for Apollo Team

Chapter 4 Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 1
More than 7 billion people live on Earth, inhabiting about 30 percent of the planet’s land.
Scientists use statistics to learn about population growth.  The birthrate is the number of births per year for every 1,000 people. The death rate is the number of deaths per year for every 1,000 people. Natural increase is the difference between an area’s birthrate and its death rate. Migration must also be considered when examining population growth. The demographic transition model uses birthrates and death rates to show changes in population trends of a country or region.  A high birth rate combined with a low death rate reduces doubling time, the number of years it takes a population to double in size.
Populations that grow rapidly use resources more quickly.  The world’s population is unevenly distributed by age, with the majority of some countries’ populations being infants and young children.
Some countries have experienced negative population growth, in which the annual death rate exceeds the birthrate.
Just as the world’s population growth rate varies among the Earth’s regions, the planet’s population distribution, the pattern of human settlement, is also uneven. Only about 30 percent of the Earth’s surface is made up of land. Much of that land is not fit to live on. Almost everyone on Earth lives on a little less than one-third of the planet’s land.  Europe and Asia are the most densely populated continents.
Where populations are highly concentrated, many people live in metropolitan areas.
To find out how crowded a place is, geographers measure population density, which is the total population of a country divided by its total land area. Two countries with the same number of people may not have the same population density. For example, Bolivia and the Dominican Republic have similar populations, but the Dominican Republic has a smaller land area, and so it is more densely populated than Bolivia.  Because the measure of population density includes all the land area of a country, it does not account for uneven population distribution within a country. 
Many people are moving from city to city, suburb to suburb, and from rural areas to cities. The growth of city populations because of migration is called urbanization.  When people emigrate from the country of their birth, they are known as emigrants in their homeland and called immigrants in their new country. People who flee their country because of wars, food shortages, or other problems, are called refugees.
Chapter 4, Section 2
Cultures may also include people who belong to different ethnic groups. Governments maintain
order, provide protection from outside dangers, and supply other services to people. Governments are organized according to levels of power and by the type of authority.  Geographers look at economic activities to study how a culture uses natural resources and to analyze the ways in which people obtain, use, and sell goods and services. Geographers divide the Earth into culture regions, which include countries.
 Culture is the way of life of a group of people who share similar beliefs and customs. People communicate information and experiences and pass on cultural values and traditions through language. Large groups of languages having similar roots are called language families. In many cultures, religion
enables people to find a sense of identity. In every culture, members of society fall into various smaller social groups. In all cultures, the family is the most important group. Most cultures are also made of social classes that may share similar economic systems, forms of government, and social groups.
The process of spreading new knowledge from one culture to another is called cultural diffusion.
The earliest humans were nomads. About 10,000 years ago, many of these nomads became farmers. This shift from gathering food to producing food is known as the Agricultural Revolution.
By about 3500 B.C., some of these early farming villages evolved into civilizations.
The world’s first civilizations are known as culture hearths.  The most influential culture hearths developed in areas that make up the modern countries of Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan, China, and Mexico. Each of these areas started as farming settlements, and had a mild climate and fertile land. The areas were each located near a major river or source of water, and the people irrigated the land and were able to grow surplus crops.
Because more food was available, fewer people farmed the land. People created new technology and carried out specialized economic activities that spurred development of long-distance trade. Wealth from trade led to the rise of cities and complex social systems. The ruler of a city needed an organized government.
Officials and merchants created writing systems to record and transmit information.  Ideas and practices spread through trade and travel, and through migration. Migrants often blend their cultures with
those of the people in the migrants’ adopted countries.  Cultural diffusion has increased rapidly during the last 250 years. In the 1700s and 1800s, industrialized countries began to mass-produce goods, and their economies changed dramatically. This development, known as the Industrial Revolution, led to social changes.
At the end of the 1900s, the world experienced the information revolution. Computers now
make it possible to store huge amounts of information and send it all over the world instantly, linking cultures of the world more closely than ever before.
Chapter 4, Section 3
A unitary system of government gives all key powers to the national or central government. A federal system divides the powers of government between the national government and state or provincial governments. Another similar type of government structure is a confederation, a loose union of independent territories. In an autocracy, such as a totalitarian dictatorship or a monarchy, the power and authority to rule belong to a single individual. An oligarchy is any system of government in which a
small group holds power.
A democracy is any system of government in which leaders rule with the consent of the citizens.  Democratic countries have representative democracies, in which the people elect representatives. Many democratic countries, such as the United States and France, are republics, in which voters elect all major officials. The head of government is usually a president elected for a specific term.  Not every democracy is a republic. The United Kingdom is a democracy with a monarch as head of state. This monarch’s role is ceremonial, and elected officials hold the power to rule.  All economic systems make three basic economic decisions:
(1) what and how many goods and services should be produced,
(2) how they should be produced,
(3) who gets the goods and services that are produced.
In a traditional economy, habit and custom determine them rules for all economic activity. In a market economy, individuals and private groups make decisions about what to produce. A market economy is based on free enterprise, the idea that individuals have the right to own property or businesses and make a profit with only limited government interference. Another term for an economic system organized this way is capitalism.
A mixed economy is one in which the government supports and
regulates free enterprise through decisions that affect the marketplace.  The government works to keep competition fair and to work for the benefit of the people.  A command economy is one in which the government owns or directs the means of production and controls the distribution of goods. Countries with command economies try to distribute goods and services equally among all citizens.
Communism requires strict government control of almost the entire society, including the economy.
Socialism allows a wider range of free enterprise alongside government-run activities. The main goals of socialism are:
(1) equal distribution of wealth and economic opportunity;
(2) society’s control of all major decisions about production; and
(3) public ownership of most land, factories, and other means of production. Some socialist countries, like those in Western Europe, are democracies. Under democratic socialism, people elect their political leaders.
Chapter 4, Section 4
Elements from the Earth that are not made by people but can be used by them for food, fuel, or other necessities are called natural resources. Renewable resources cannot be used up or can be replaced naturally or grown again in a relatively short amount of time. Nonrenewable resources, such as minerals and fossil fuels, cannot be replaced. Because fossil fuels and other nonrenewable resources cannot
be replaced, they must be conserved. Environment experts have encouraged people to replace their dependence on fossil fuels with the use of renewable energy resources including hydroelectric
power, solar energy, and nuclear energy.
Primary economic activities involve taking or using natural resources directly from the Earth. Secondary economic activities use raw materials to produce something new and more valuable.
Tertiary economic activities provide services to people and businesses. Quaternary economic activities are concerned with the processing, management, and distribution of information.
Economic activities, including industrialization, or the spread of industry, influence a country’s level of development.  Countries with much technology and manufacturing are called developed countries. Newly industrialized countries have moved from primarily agricultural to primarily manufacturing
and industrial activities. Countries working toward greater manufacturing and technology activities are called developing countries.
The unequal distribution of natural resources and differing labor costs and education levels promote a complex network of trade among countries. Some governments add barriers to trade to help their own
economy. Barriers may include adding a tariff, or tax, to the price of imported goods, putting a quota, or number limit on importing a particular product from a particular country, or imposing an embargo, banning trade with another country altogether.
Free trade is the removal of trade barriers so that goods can flow freely among countries.
Pollution is the release of unclean or impure elements into the air, water, and land.  Earth’s bodies of water normally renew themselves, but can be polluted when oil tankers and offshore drilling rigs cause oil spills; when chemical waste enters the water supply; and when fertilizers and pesticides seep into groundwater.
Land pollution occurs when chemical waste poisons topsoil, or when solid waste is dumped in
landfills. Radioactive waste and toxic runoff can also leak into the soil.
The main source of air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels.  Burning fuel gives off poisonous gases. Acidic chemicals in air pollution also combine with precipitation to form acid rain. When forests
are destroyed by acid rain, less oxygen is produced by photosynthesis.  As humans expand their communities, they threaten natural ecosystems. Because the Earth’s land, air, and water are interrelated,
what harms one part of the system harms all the other parts.